Psychological effects and developmental research of                       various media

Today, the media is becoming more widespread in homes and schools, and children spend a lot of time with various media from an early age. Several large-scale surveys can be helpful in understanding the actual state of children's use of media. For example, according to a national life time survey conducted by the NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute every five years, the mass media of Japanese elementary, junior high, and high school students in 2005 (television, radio, newspapers, magazines / manga, etc.) The amount of contact (books, CDs / tapes, videos) is 2 hours 50 minutes (elementary school students), 3 hours 1 minute (junior high school students), and 4 hours 51 minutes (high school students) per day on weekdays (NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute). 2006). Regarding reading, the Mainichi Newspapers and the National School Library Council conduct a "school reading survey" every year, and the number of books (excluding textbooks, manga, magazines, etc.) and magazines read in a month It is being investigated. In a 2007 survey, it was reported that the average number of books read in a month was 9.4 for elementary school students, 3.4 for junior high school students, and 1.6 for high school students (National SLA Survey Department 2007).


Video games and computers are becoming more widespread among children, and according to a survey conducted by the Japan PTA National Council in November 2006, the percentage of elementary and junior high school students in Japan who own video games is about 90%. That is. In addition, in the "Fact-finding Survey on Information and Communication Equipment Usage of Elementary, Junior and Senior High School Students" conducted by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications in December 2006, 85.4% of elementary school students and above, 86.7% of junior high school students, and 83.3% of high school students answered that they had a personal computer at home. ("Information Moral Education" Guidance Method Review Committee 2007). In addition, it is reported that 18.6% of elementary school students and above and 50.7% of junior high school students own their own mobile phones. It is reported that more than 90% of high school students own mobile phones (Benesse Education and Research Development Center 2005).


Regarding the impact of such media use, there are concerns about adverse effects such as cognitive development being hindered by watching violent scenes on TV, becoming a violent personality, and increasing social maladaptation by using video games and the Internet. .. However, results consistent with this concern have not always been shown empirically. On the other hand, as a positive effect of media use, cognitive ability is enhanced by watching TV, or rather aggression is decreased, sociality and cognitive processing ability are increased by video games, and information utilization ability and society are increased by using the Internet. Results such as increased gender and expanded interpersonal relationships have also been reported. It is also suggested that although there are fewer impact studies on reading than in other media, it has both positive and negative effects, as in other media.


Understand under what circumstances and conditions the media will have a positive or negative effect in order to avoid the adverse effects of the media and to bring out the positive effects as much as possible. It is considered useful to do so. Therefore, in this section, we divide the influence of each media into the influence on academic ability and the influence on social and interpersonal aspects, and review mainly the research in Japan in the last 20 years, and the media has a positive influence. We will also introduce research that will be helpful in understanding the conditions and conditions that have an adverse effect.


4.4.1. Impact of reading.

(1) Impact on academic achievement

Regarding the effect of reading on the academic ability side, Krashen (1996) summarized the research published in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, etc. for about 100 years. It is shown that there is a consistent correlation between free reading and literacy. For example, regarding the relationship between reading activities and reading comprehension, 41 practical examples are taken up, and a free reading (reading because you want to read, do not read a book you do not want to read, but choose another book you want to read) program and conventional Japanese language. We compare the results of reading comprehension tests in textbooks (classes that focus on reading instructional textbooks, grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension, and direct instruction in spelling). As a result, it is shown that the effect of the free reading program is often the same as or more than that of the conventional lesson regardless of the length of the implementation period. In addition, as the implementation period becomes longer, the free reading program tends to improve the grades in many cases, and it takes a while for the students to be able to select books by themselves, so continue to read freely. It is also suggested that it is important to implement. However, it has been reported that the writing ability of "reading and writing ability" is not always effective. People who are accustomed to reading do not necessarily pay attention to all the characters because they make inferences based on existing knowledge and read only the minimum number of characters that can confirm the content of the sentence. There are limits to how much you can't master written words, such as spelling, punctuation, and grammatical mistakes.


In a Japanese study, Adachi Nireka et al. (1999) conducted a panel survey 1 targeting junior high school and high school students, and the effect of reading volume (average time to read books and magazines per day) on information utilization ability Is under consideration. As a result, it is shown that in junior high school students, the amount of reading of books and magazines enhances "information processing ability (processing ability)" and "information understanding" in the information utilization ability.

In addition, in a study by Katsura Sakamoto et al. (1998), who examined the effect of watching TV on creativity, a panel survey was conducted targeting elementary and junior high school students to examine the effect of watching TV on creativity. The results show that watching TV on Sundays suppresses the development of children's creativity.

In this way, regarding the effect of watching TV on cognitive ability, the results do not agree between the studies, and it is necessary to conduct further research including the examination of the factors that determine the effect. One of the factors that determine this effect is the type of program. As for the influence of program types, many experiments and surveys have shown to some extent that educational programs enhance children's cognitive abilities (Fisch 2002). In addition, some studies have shown that there is a negative correlation between watching violent programs and boys' academic ability (Huesmann & Eron 1986), and the relationship between the effects of watching violent programs on cognitive ability will be discussed in the future. It is hoped that further studies will be conducted.


(2) Impact on social and interpersonal aspects

Regarding the effect 5 of watching TV on social and interpersonal aspects, there is a study examining the effect on aggression and prosociality (trying to help society, trying to help people). In particular, a large number of experiments and research studies have been conducted on aggression, and overseas experimental studies (Bandura et al. 1963, Berkowitz & Alioto 1973) and longitudinal research studies (Eron et al.) Have been conducted so far. The results of a meta-analysis (Hearold 1986, Paik & Comstock 1994) in 1972, Huesman et al. 2003) show that violent depictions of television programs have adverse effects such as promoting people's aggression learning in the short and long term. It suggests that there is.


However, the opposite result has also been reported. For example, in a Japanese study, in the second survey of the above-mentioned "Broadcasting for Children" project, contact with TV, video, and video games targeted children in the second, fifth, and second grades of elementary school. The effects on sexuality are also being investigated. As a result, it was shown that the longer the TV contact time, the lower the aggression in the fifth grade of elementary school (NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute 2005).

Regarding prosociality, as a result of a review of previous studies, it was reported that no significant effect of watching TV on prosocial behavior of infants and preschoolers was found (Friedrich-Cofer et. al. 1979). Similarly, in the second survey of the above-mentioned "Broadcasting for Children" project in Japan, no impact on prosociality was seen. In contrast, some studies suggest that some of the prosocial behaviors have the effect of watching television (Stein et al. 1981).

In this way, regarding the effects of watching TV on aggression and prosociality, as with cognitive ability, the results are not consistent between studies, and the factors that determine the effects are examined.

We have to go. The determinants of these effects include the contextual factors of depictions of violence and prosocial behavior in television programs, and parents' attitudes and behaviors toward watching television by their children.

Regarding the contextual factors of depictions of violence and prosocial actions in TV programs, detailed content analysis research 6 is in progress both overseas and in Japan. The JTVS (Japanese Television Violence Study) conducted from 2003 to 2006 is a study that combines this content analysis method with a longitudinal survey. As for the influence on the learning of aggression in elementary school students, the depiction of violence by physical means and violence by attractive characters enhances indirect aggression, while the depiction of linguistic aggression reduces indirect aggression. It is shown. In addition, as for the influence of junior high school students on learning aggression, it has been shown that viewing indirect attacks increases aggression, while viewing depictions of the victim's family and friends' sadness reduces aggression ( Suzuki 2007b, 2007c).

The influence of parents' attitudes and behaviors on children's TV viewing is being examined in the 4th survey of the above-mentioned "Children's Good Broadcast" project. In this survey, "cooperativeness / empathy" and "activeness / self-assertion" were used as indicators of sociality, and the amount of TV contact and the TV sharing function of the father or mother ("watching with children" and "watching"). Examining the effects of "talking to children about what they are doing") and control functions ("programs that should be watched", "programs that should not be watched", "change channels for content that you do not want to see") Was done. As a result, the amount of TV contact did not affect sociality, but the mother's TV sharing function had a weak effect on "cooperativeness / empathy" and "activity / self-assertion". It was shown that the control function also influences "cooperativeness / empathy". In this way, it has been suggested that the attitudes and behaviors of parents regarding how to show television to children affect the development of sociality in early childhood (NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute 2007).

4.4.3. Impact of video games.


(1) Impact on academic achievement

Regarding the effect 7 of the use of video games on academic achievement, there is a study examining the effects on visual intelligence (spatial visualization 8), information processing ability, creativity, logic, etc. Overseas experimental studies examining the effects of video game use have shown that video game use enhances spatial visualization and information processing capabilities.

In a Japanese study, Hiroki Yuchi (1996) examined the relationship between video game use and information processing ability (parallel processing) for kindergarten children. In this study, two stimuli presented in sequence on a computer display were given to a group of players who played more often in video games and were more enthusiastic than a group of non-players who played less often in video games and were less enthusiastic. It was judged earlier whether they were the same or not, and there was no difference in the accuracy of the reaction. Therefore, it is suggested that the use of video games enhances information processing capability (parallel processing).

In addition to this, research on creativity and logic has been conducted for elementary school students (Sakamoto, A. & Sakamoto, T. 1993, Akira Sakamoto et al. 1998). The results show that video game use does not affect creativity. In addition, the results show that the logic decreases in elementary school girls, but since the number of studies is small in all cases, further research is needed to reach a conclusion.

(2) Impact on social and interpersonal aspects


Regarding the impact of the use of video games on social and interpersonal aspects, there are studies examining the impact on aggression, social maladaptation, etc. Research on video game use and aggression has been conducted mainly in the United States, and experimental studies have shown that violent video games become aggressive (Sasaki, Horiuchi 2007). In addition, a meta-analytic study reported that the use of video games increased aggression (Sherry 2001, Anderson & Bushman 2001).

In Japan as well, results have been reported in favor of increasing aggression in video games. For example, in 2000 (Heisei 10), the "Survey and Research on Violence Related to Youth and Television, Games, etc." conducted by the Cabinet Office Policy Director (in charge of symbiotic social policy) targeted 6th grade elementary school students and 2nd grade junior high school students. The results suggest that there is some relationship between involvement in games and experiences of violence in both games at arcades and games at home. In terms of gender, the greater the degree of involvement in the game for both men and women, the greater the tendency for violence to be experienced. There is also a relationship between involvement in the game and the presence or absence of delinquency / problem behavior, and the longer the game is played, the higher the proportion of delinquency / problem behavior tends to be (Cabinet). Prefecture 1998).

However, as with TV, in the case of video games, the impact will differ depending on the content. Foreign studies have shown that games with blood depictions have higher offensive awareness than games without blood (Farrar et al. 2006).

In addition, JTVS mentioned earlier is also studying video games, and an increase in physical attacks is seen by watching linguistic attacks, and an increase in physical attacks is seen in boys by watching repeated violence. It has been shown that viewing humorous violence increases indirect attacks (Suzuki 2007c).

In addition to aggression, one of the problems that is feared as an adverse effect of video games is that by dealing with characters who are simpler and easier to do in video games, they lose the opportunity and motivation to build real relationships. Sometimes people can't interact with each other (Akira Sakamoto 1999).

Although not many studies have examined the causal relationship between video game use and social maladaptation, so far few studies have shown that video game use leads to social maladaptation. A study by Fumika Kimura et al. Conducted a longitudinal survey of high school and university students, and showed that the more they used video games, the lower their empathy (Kimura et al. 2000). In addition, the use of video games and school adaptation are being examined in the second survey of the aforementioned "Broadcasting for Children" project. As a result, it is shown that children in the first grade of junior high school who tend to be antisocial at school spend more time using video games one year later. Furthermore, it has been shown that a large amount of video game time in the first grade of junior high school leads to a high tendency for isolation one year later (NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute 2005).

On the other hand, some studies have shown the opposite causal relationship that video game use does not lead to social maladaptation, but rather that if the original social maladaptation is high, video game use increases (Sakamoto). , A. 1994).

In addition, some studies have shown that the use of video games has a positive effect on reducing social maladaptation. Nobuko Umehara et al. Conducted a longitudinal survey of junior high school students and showed that the use of video games rather reduced shyness (Umehara et al. 2002). In addition, the above-mentioned study by Kimura et al. Shows that the more high school students use video games, the lower their social anxiety.

In this way, no consistent results have been seen regarding the impact of video games on social maladaptation, and the adverse effect that video games enhance social adaptation cannot be said to be supported. Due to the small number of studies overall, it is difficult to draw clear conclusions from previous studies, and it is hoped that further impact studies will be conducted in the future.

In recent years, it has been pointed out that video games can be used effectively as well as for entertainment (Akira Sakamoto 2000). For example, in subject education, it may be used to motivate children to learn, or as an opportunity for rehabilitation of the elderly and communication in clinical psychology. It is expected that the methods and effects of such educational use will be empirically examined.

(3) Video games and brain


For video games and the brain, EEG (Electro Encephalo Graphy), FMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging), PET (Positron Emission Tomography), NIRS (Near Infrared Spectroscopy), etc. Studies have been conducted to measure brain activity when using video games using methods9.

Research on video games and the brain has attracted a great deal of attention due to the theory of adverse effects on the brain. One of the triggers for the theory of adverse effects on the brain is the study by Ryuta Kawashima (2001). In this study, we performed a whole-body game and a Kleperin test for university students, and performed brain imaging using PET. As a result, it was found that during the video game, the activity range of the brain was narrower and the activity level was lower than when the simple addition was performed, and the activity of the prefrontal cortex 10 was particularly reduced. The results of this study were reported and widely covered under the title "Video games inhibit the development of children's brains."

After that, the publication of "Game Brain Horror" by Akio Mori (2002) raised the theory of adverse effects on the brain of video games. Using a self-developed electroencephalograph, Mori measured α-waves and β-waves 11 for about 240 children in their 20s. Based on the appearance pattern of α wave and β wave, the brain type is "(1) Normal brain: I have never played a video game, and there is no change in the brain wave even if I start a video game." "(2) Visual brain: Video game I haven't done so, but I watch TV and videos for an hour or two every day. When I start a video game, my brain waves temporarily drop, but when I stop, it returns to normal. "" (3) Half-game brain: Video games 2 to 3 times a week, once for 1 to 3 hours. Beta waves have dropped to the level of alpha waves before and after video games started. "" (4) Game brain: TV I play games 4 to 6 times a week for 2 to 7 hours once. Even when I'm not playing video games, my brain doesn't work and my brain waves are so low that I can't measure the numbers. " did.

In this way, Kawashima (2001) and Mori (2002) seem to show that video games have an adverse effect on the brain. However, in reality, it is difficult to discuss the effect of the brain condition only during video games on the cognitive development of children, and activation in a narrow range of the brain is also effective when skilled workers work efficiently. From this, it is considered that the relationship between video games and brain development needs to be further investigated.

Subsequent studies have also shown that the state of brain activation differs depending on the type of video game. Tsuyoshi Matsuda et al. (2003) used near-infrared spectroscopy to measure local blood flow changes during and before and after each operation of four types of video games (shooting, rhythm action, block dropping, and dice puzzle). Compared with addition work 12. As a result, it was shown that the blood flow decreased in a wide area of   the brain during the video game, and the blood flow decreased in all parts, especially in the rhythm action, as compared with the addition work. Miho Tanaka et al. (2006) investigated the effect of video game proficiency on brain activity by measuring brain waves for experienced video game users (long-term users) and beginner university students. In this research, a rhythm game (a game of hitting a drum according to the symbols and music on the screen), a puzzle game (a game of rolling the dice and aligning the eyes of the adjacent dice), a car race, and an action game (becoming a warlord in the Warring States period). , A game that advances while defeating enemies), and compared the brain waves of the gamma band 13 during each game play. As a result, rhythm games are other.

It has been shown that the increase in gamma band in the forehead is significantly lower than in video games.

4.4.4.4 Impact of the Internet


(1) Impact on academic achievement

Regarding the impact of the use of the Internet on academic achievement, there are studies examining the impact on cognitive ability, information utilization ability, and international understanding.

Regarding cognitive ability, it was reported in an overseas longitudinal study (Jackson et al. 2006) targeting 10 to 18 years old that the use of the Internet predicted higher academic performance and reading comprehension. However, due to the small number of studies, it is difficult to draw clear conclusions at present, and future studies are awaited.

Regarding the development of information utilization ability, there are studies using methods such as quasi-experiment 14 and panel survey. For example, regarding the effects of using the Internet in schools, Naito et al. (2001) used the method of quasi-experiment to improve the content of lessons at schools that utilize the Internet (the introduction of optical fibers has led to more classes using the Internet. Is there any increase in the practical ability of information utilization between the students of the junior high school) and the students of the non-Internet utilization school (the junior high school where the optical fiber was not introduced and the lessons using the Internet were not conducted)? I'm considering whether. As a result, it was shown that the students of the Internet utilization school had higher practical ability of information utilization as a whole than the students of the non-utilization school. In addition, it was shown that the lower abilities of information utilization ability were higher in collecting ability, judgment ability, processing ability, and transmission / transmission ability.

Other studies have also suggested that the practical ability of information utilization and part of the scientific understanding of information can be enhanced by using the Internet (Omi et al. 2005, Sakamoto Katsura et al. 1999). However, no such effect was seen with regard to the attitude of participating in the information society (Kabuchi et al. 2003), suggesting the need for systematic lessons rather than just increasing Internet use.

There is also research using panel surveys on the development of international understanding. Suzuki et al. (2001) examined the impact of using the Internet in Japanese or foreign languages   on international understanding in high school students. As a result, it was shown that the use of the Internet in foreign languages   raises awareness (respect for human rights, fostering awareness of world solidarity) in boys. On the other hand, in girls, knowledge (understanding of foreign cultures, understanding of foreign languages) has been shown to enhance the use of the Internet in foreign languages.

(2) Impact on social and interpersonal aspects

Regarding the impact of Internet use on sociality, some early studies on the Internet suggested adverse effects, but in recent years more studies have suggested rather positive effects. As a result of three longitudinal surveys overseas, it has been reported that the use of the Internet had a positive effect on communication, social participation, and psychological well-being (Kraut et al. 2002).

In Japan, there are not many studies that empirically examined the effect of Internet use on sociality, but in recent years, research papers have been gradually seen. Suzuki et al. (2003) and Reiko Ando et al. (2004) are investigating the impact of Internet use on sociality for male students of information-related vocational schools. Suzuki et al. (2003) examined the impact of Internet use on social skills. The study shows that the use of e-mail and network games enhances social skills in various applications on the Internet.

Ando et al. (2004) are examining the effects of using the Internet on interpersonal relationships, social efficacy, and psychological health on the Internet. In this research, we divided the use of the Internet into synchronization tools such as chat and asynchronous tools such as e-mail and bulletin boards, and analyzed (1) the more synchronous and asynchronous tools are used, the more on the net. Interpersonal relationships increase, (2) The more synchronization tools you use, the lower your life satisfaction and social effectiveness, but (3) The more synchronization tools you use and the more friends of the opposite sex on the net, the less life you have. Satisfaction increases, (4) the more acquaintances and same-sex friends on the net using more synchronization tools, the higher the social effectiveness, and (5) using more asynchronous tools on the net. It has been shown that the greater the number of acquaintances, the greater the sense of social effectiveness.

4.4.5. Conclusion
 

This section has introduced research on the effects of reading, television, video games, and the Internet, but previous research has seen both positive and negative effects of the media. Socially feared adverse effects, such as video games and the Internet and social maladaptation, may be unproven or in the opposite direction. Regarding the areas of media impact research introduced in this section, where the number of studies is small overall, first of all, what kind of media and what kind of impact can be seen, and knowledge on short-term and long-term impact It is necessary to accumulate. In particular, from the perspective of development, it is necessary to examine long-term effects, but there are not many studies that have examined long-term effects in the area of   influence research in any media, and future research is in progress. Be expected.

In this section, we have taken up content and the attitudes and behaviors of parents as factors that determine the direction of media influence, but in addition to this, it is shown that the influence of media changes depending on usage conditions, individual differences, etc. Has been done. It is hoped that the knowledge that will lead to the effective use of media at home, education, and clinical practice will be widely provided by repeatedly examining the factors that determine these effects and the effects process. (Suzuki)

note

1.  A panel survey is a research method that estimates the causal relationship between variables (reading amount, information utilization ability, etc.) by conducting the same survey twice or more for the same research subject.
2. The following documents are available as reviews of domestic and foreign experiments and research studies on the cognitive ability of watching TV.
Rei Omi (2003). “Television and Cognitive Ability”. Akira Sakamoto ed. Media and Human Development. Gakubunsha, p.23-38.

Rei Omi (2007). Trends in research on the effects of cognitive ability media on youth-Literature survey- (Research representative: Akira Sakamoto). 2006 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology commissioned "Promotion of harmful environment measures surrounding youth" research Business, p.173-182.

3. Long-term effects are obtained by longitudinal studies (a study method in which a subject is surveyed once and then the same survey or a part of the same survey is conducted multiple times at a certain time interval). It is said that the influence relationship can be identified to some extent by analyzing the obtained data by a certain method. When the surveys conducted multiple times are basically the same, they are called "panel surveys" as described above (Note 1).
4. Meta-analysis is a method of estimating the effect as a whole by integrating the results of multiple studies conducted on the same theme by a statistical method.
The following documents are available as meta-analytic studies examining the relationship between TV viewing and academic ability.

Williams, P. A. Haertel, E. H., Haetel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (1982). The impact of leisure time television on school learning: A research synthesis. American Educational Research Journal, 19 (1), p. 19-50.

5. The following documents are available as reviews of domestic and foreign experiments and research studies on the aggression of TV viewing.
Terumi Sasaki, Yukiko Horiuchi (2007). Trends in research on the effects of violent media on adolescents-Literature survey- (Research representative: Akira Sakamoto) 2006 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology commissioned "Promotion of harmful environmental measures surrounding youth" survey Research Project, p.103-120.

6. Content analysis is an analysis method that attempts to quantitatively grasp the characteristics of each piece of information and messages presented by the media by classifying and evaluating them.
The following documents can be used as a reference for content analysis research on the depictions of violence and prosocial actions in television programs.

(1) Sumiko Iwao (2000). Message from TV drama: Social psychological analysis. Keiso Shobo, 257, 4p.
(2) Makiko Sado, Akira Sakamoto, Kanae Suzuki (2004). Analysis of depictions of violence and prosocial behavior in television programs. Journal of the Japan Society for Educational Technology. 28 (Suppl), p.77-80.
(3) Akira Sakamoto (2007). Construction of an evaluation system for the depiction of violence in television programs-based on content analysis and longitudinal surveys-. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology's Scientific Research Grant Research Results Report. Research Project Number: 15203026.
(4) Gunter, B., & Harrison, J., & Wykes, M. (2003). Violence on Television: Distribution, Form, Context, and Themes. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
(5) Smith, S. L, Wilson, BJ, Kunkel, D., Linz, D., Potter, J., Colvin, CM, & Donnerstein, E. (1998). “Violence in television programming overall: University of California, Santa Barbara study ”. National Television Violence Study. Vol.3. M. Seawall (Ed.). Sage Publications, p.5-220.

7. The following documents are available as reviews of domestic and foreign experiments and research studies on the effects of video game use on cognitive ability.
Nobuko Ibori (2003). “Video games and cognitive ability”. Media and human development. Akira Sakamoto ed. Gakubunsha, p.80-94.
8. Regarding visual attention and spatial visualization, the following definitions are introduced in the literature of Note 7.
Visual attention is said to be the ability to keep track of the movements of many different objects. In addition, spatial visualization means "the ability to rotate an object in the head and manipulate a rotated two- or three-dimensional object", and "perceive the relationship between a two- or three-dimensional object or an object and the environment." Or, the ability to hold it in imagination. "
9. The following documents are available as reviews of domestic and foreign experiments and research studies on video games and brain activity.
Akira Sakamoto (2008). "Study on the effects of simulation games on brain activity and cognition" Research report (Research representative: Akira Sakamoto). 2005 Science and Technology Fusion Promotion Foundation Research Grant Research.
10. The prefrontal cortex plays an important role in controlling behavior and developing memory, emotions, and learning abilities. The development of this prefrontal cortex requires sufficient stimulation by the age of 20, and if it is inhibited during this period, it will suffer damage for the rest of its life.
11. Alpha waves are the 8 to 13 Hz frequency components of human brain waves, and are said to be more common than other frequency components at rest and when the eyes are closed. Beta waves are 14 to 30 Hz frequency components, and are often seen during daily activities.
12. See also the URL below.
Takeshi Matsuda. The effect of video games on the brain.
13. Experimental results have shown that the gamma band is a frequency band of 20 Hz to 30 Hz or higher and is closely related to cognitive activity (attention, feature integration, perceptual learning, memory, etc.).
14. A quasi-experiment satisfies the random placement and control group settings when it is difficult to use the method of randomly assigning subjects and verifying the hypothesis by comparing with the control group and other conditions in a real situation. There is no such thing, but it takes the form of an experiment.

 References

Nireka Adachi, Akira Sakamoto, Fumika Kimura, Kumiko Kobayashi, Noriko Katsutani, Kanae Suzuki, Noriko Ibe, Miyoko Takahira, Katsura Sakamoto, Tsutako Mori, Kazuhiko Hatano, Takashi Sakamoto (1999). Effect of media use on information utilization ability -Panel survey of junior high school and high school students-. Japan Educational Technology Magazine. 23, p.99-104.

Aksoy, T., & Link, CR (2000). A panel analysis of student mathematics achievement in the US in the 1990s: Does increasing the amount of time in learning activities affect math achievement ?. Economics of Education Review. 19 (3) , p.261-277.

Anderson, CA, & Bushman, BJ (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science. 12 (5) , p.353-359.

Reiko Ando, Akira Sakamoto, Kanae Suzuki, Kumiko Kobayashi, Megumi Mabuchi, Fumika Kimura (2004). Impact of Internet use on life satisfaction and social effectiveness-Panel survey of male students at information colleges-. Personality research . 13 (1), p.21-33.

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S.A. (1963). Vicarious reinforcement and imitative learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 67, p.601-607.

Benesse Center for Educational Research and Development (2005). “Actual conditions of mobile phone usage”. Report on the 1st Basic Survey on Children's Life Conditions. Http://benesse.jp/berd/data/dataclip/clip0001/index.html, (See 2008-03-20).

Berkowitz, L., & Alioto, J.T. (1973). The meaning of an observed event as a determinant of its aggressive consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 28 (2), p.206-217.

Eron, L. D., Huesman, L. R., Lefkowitz, M. M., & Walder, L. O. (1972). Does Television violence cause aggression ?. American Psychologist. 27 (4), p.253-263.

Farrar, K. M., Krcmar, M., & Nowak, K. L. (2006). Contextual features of violent video games, mental models, and aggression. Journal of Communication, 56, p.387-405.

Fisch, SM (2002). “Vast Wasteland or vast opportunity? Effects of educational television on children's academic knowledge, skills, and attitudes”. Media Effects: Advances in theory and research. J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.). 2nd ed., Lawrence Erlbaum Associate, p.397-426.

Friedrich-Cofer, LK, Stein, AH, Kipnis, DM, Susman, EJ, & Clewett, AS (1979). Environmental enhancement of prosocial television content: Effects on international behavior, imaginative play, and self-regulation in a natural setting. Developmental Psychology. 15 (6), p.637-646.

Gaddy, G. D. (1986). Television impact on high school achievement. Public Opinion Quarterly. 50 (3), p.340-359.

Hearold, S. (1986). “A synthesis of 104 effects of television on social behavior”. Public communication and behavior. Vol1. G. Comstock (Ed.), Academic Press, p.65-133.

Huesmann, LR, & Eron, LD (1986). “The development of aggression in American children as a consequence of television violence viewing”. Television and the aggressive child: A cross-national comparison. LR Huesmann, & LD Eron (Eds. ), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p.45-80.

Huesman, LR, Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, CL, & Eron, L. (2003). Longitudinal relations between children's exposure to TV violence and their aggressive and violent behavior in young adulthood: 1977-1992. Developmental Psychology. 39 (2), p.201-221.

Jackson, LA, von Eye, A., Biocca, FA, Barbatsis, G, Zhao, Y., & Fitzgerald, HE (2006). Does home Internet use influence the academic performance of low-income children?. Developmental Psychology. 42 , p.429-435.

"Information Moral Education" Guidance Method Review Committee (2007). Survey on the Usage of Information and Communication Equipment for Elementary, Junior and Senior High School Students 2006 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology commissioned project "Information Morality Guidance Support Project". Http://kayoo.org/moral -guidebook / enquete / figurelist.html, (see 2008-03-20).

Kenji Kanna (1979). Effect of storytelling (I): A study on the effect of storytelling on reading ability. Reading Science. 22, p.95-103.

Megumi Kabuchi, Akira Sakamoto, Kumiko Kobayashi, Reiko Ando, Fumika Kimura, Nireka Adachi, Mayumi Naito, Kanae Suzuki, Miyoko Takahira, Katsura Sakamoto, Mizuho Mouri, Shogo Kato, Akira Sakamoto (2003). Effect of Sakamoto on the Information Society Readiness of Students-Evaluation Study by Semi-Experimental Studies for Junior High School Students-. Japan Educational Engineering Magazine. 26, p.377-383.

Ryuta Kawashima (2001). Raise your own brain. Kumon Publishing, 143p.

Fumika Kimura, Akira Sakamoto, Junko Sagara, Katsura Sakamoto, Tetsuro Inaba (2000). Analysis of longitudinal data on video game use and social adaptability. Personality Psychology Research. 8, p.130-132.

Koolsta, CM, van der Voort, THA, & van der Kamp, LJ Th. (1997). Television's impact on children's reading comprehension and decoding skills: A 3-year panel study. Reading Research Quarterly. 32 (2), p. 128-152.

Krashen, S.D. (1996). Reading is power. Translated by Mieko Nagakura, Hiroshi Tsukahara,  Hiroshi Kurosawa. Kinnohoshi Co., Ltd., 166p.

Kraut, R., Kiesler, S., Boneva, B., Cummings, J., Helgeson, V., & Crawford (2002). Internet paradox revised. Journal of Social Issues. 58, p.49-74.

Takeshi Matsuda, Kazuo Hiraki, Sotaro Shimada, Ichiro Oda (2003). Measurement of brain activity during video game operation by near infrared spectroscopy. Simulation & Gaming. 13, p.21-31.

Akio Mori (2002). Horror of the game brain. Japan Broadcast Publishing Association, 196p.

Cabinet Office (1998). Research on violence related to youth and television, games, etc. http://www8.cao.go.jp/youth/kenkyu/tv/tv.htm, (Reference 2008-03-20) ..

Mayumi Naito, Akira Sakamoto, Mizuho Mouri, Fumika Kimura, Megumi Kabuchi, Kumiko Kobayashi, Reiko Ando,   Kanae Suzuki, Nireka Adachi, Miyoko Takahira, Katsura Sakamoto, Shogo Kato, Takashi Sakamoto (2001). Effect of students' information utilization on practical ability-Evaluation research by quasi-experiment of junior high school students-. Japan Educational Engineering Magazine. 25 (2), p.63-71.

NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute (2003). Children's Good Broadcasting Project 1st Follow-up Survey Results Report. Http://www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/research/bangumi/kodomo/pdf/kodomo_03012001.pdf, ( See 2008-03-20).

NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute (2006). Japanese Lifetime: NHK National Lifetime Survey. 2005. Japan Broadcast Publishing Association, 250p.


NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute (2005). Good Broadcasting Project for Children 2nd Follow-up Survey Results Report. http://www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/research/bangumi/kodomo/pdf/kodomo_05030101.pdf, ( See 2008-03-20).


NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute (2006). Children's Good Broadcasting Project 3rd Follow-up Survey Results Report. http://www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/research / bangumi / kodomo / pdf / kodomo_06040701.pdf, (see 2008-03-20).


NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute (2007). Children's Good Broadcasting Project 4th Follow-up Survey Results Report. http://www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/research/bangumi/kodomo/pdf/kodomo_07050701.pdf, ( See 2008-03-20).


Rei Omi, Akira Sakamoto, Reiko Ando,   Kumiko Akiyama, Fumika Kimura, Megumi Kabuchi, Mayumi Naito, Miyoko Takahira, Katsura Sakamoto, Nireka Adachi, Kanae Suzuki, Shogo Kato, Takashi Sakamoto (2005). Causal relationship of practical ability-Three-wave panel study for junior high school students-. Journal of the Japan Society for Educational Technology. 29, p.11-21.


Paik, H., & Comstock, G. (1994). The effects of television violence on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis. Communication Research. 21 (4), p.516-546.


Sakamoto, A. (1994). Video game use and the development of sociocognitive abilities in children: Three surveys of elementary school students. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 24, p.21-42.


Akira Sakamoto (1999). Does video games lead to social maladaptation? Child psychology. 53 (3), p.111-118. http://www.hss.ocha.ac.jp/psych/socpsy/akira /media/tvg3.htm, (see 2008-03-20).


Akira Sakamoto (2000). TV gaming society in the 21st century-from entertainment-led to effective use-. Simulation & gaming. 10, p.4-13.


Akira Sakamoto, Nireka Adachi, Kanae Suzuki, Hideaki Baba, Akio Sakuraya, Kazuhiko Ogushi, Tsutomu Hara, Takashi Sakamoto (1998). Panel study on computer use and the development of logic and creativity in children. Japan Educational Technology Magazine. 22, p.65-68.


Sakamoto, A. & Sakamoto, T. (1993). Causal relationships between computer use, creativity, and motivation for learning in children: A panel study of male elementary school students. Educational Technology Research. 16 (1-2), p. 1-10.


Katsura Sakamoto, Akira Sakamoto, Tsutako Mori, Miyoko Takahira, Nireka Adachi, Noriko Ibe, Kanae Suzuki, Noriko Katsutani, Kumiko Kobayashi, Kazuhiko Hatano, Takashi Sakamoto (1999). Relationship-Evaluation study by panel survey of junior high school students and high school students-. Journal of Educational Systems Information Society. 15, p.293-299.


Katsura Sakamoto, Miyoko Takahira, Akira Sakamoto, Hideaki Baba, Akio Sakuraya, Kazuhiko Ogushi, Tsutomu Hara, Takashi Sakamoto (1998). Effect of mass media contact on cognitive development of children. Journal of Japan Educational Technology Society. 22, p. 69 -72.


Ryosuke Sasaki (1998). The effect of reading on "feelings of compassion". Reading Science. 42, p.47-59.


Ryosuke Sasaki (1999). Changes in opinions and attitudes of "feelings of compassion" through reading. Reading Science. 43, p.119-127.


Terumi Sasaki, Yukiko Horiuchi (2007). Trends in research on the effects of violent media on adolescents-Literature survey- (Research representative: Akira Sakamoto). Research and Research Project, p.103-120.


Sherry, J. L. (2001). The effects of violent video games on aggression: A meta-analysis. Human Communication Research. 27 (3), p.409-431.


Stein, AH, Fox, S., Greer, D., Watkins, BA, & Whitaker, J. (1981). The effects of TV action and violence on children's social behavior. Journal of Genetic Psychology. 138, p.183- 191.


Kanae Suzuki (2007a). “Effects of reading on elementary and junior high school students”. Comprehensive research on the formation of reading ability over a lifetime. Principal Investigator: Yoshihiro Tatta. Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Number: 16330161, p.93-106.


Kanae Suzuki (2007b). “Effects of viewing tendency of violent depictions of TV programs on aggression, fear world view, and desensitization: Longitudinal survey of elementary school students”. Construction of evaluation system for violent depictions of TV programs-content analysis and Based on a longitudinal survey ―. Principal Investigator: Akira Sakamoto. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Scientific Research Grant Research Results Report. Research Project Number: 15203026, p.265-304.


Kanae Suzuki (2007c). “Effects of viewing tendency of violent depictions of TV programs on aggression, fear world view, and desensitization: Longitudinal survey of junior high school students”. Construction of evaluation system for violent depictions of TV programs-content analysis and Based on a longitudinal survey ―. Principal Investigator: Akira Sakamoto. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Scientific Research Grant Research Results Report. Research Project Number: 15203026, p.305-367.


Kanae Suzuki, Akira Sakamoto, Nireka Adachi, Fumika Kimura, Tsutako Mori, Katsura Sakamoto, Miyoko Takahira, Kumiko Kobayashi, Megumi Kabuchi (2001). Impact of Internet Use on International Understanding-Panel Study for High School Students-. Education System Journal of Information Society. 18, p.398-409.


Kanae Suzuki, Akira Sakamoto, Kumiko Kobayashi, Reiko Ando,   Megumi Kabuchi, Fumika Kimura (2003). Impact of Internet Use on Social Skills. Japan Educational Technology Magazine. 27, p.117-120.


Miho Tanaka, Kyoko Hirasawa, Kanae Suzuki, Yukuo Konishi, Akira Sakamoto (2006). “Effects of video game types and proficiency on EEG-examination by gamma band frequency content-”. Ochanomizu University 21st Century COE Program "Human Development Science from Birth to Death" Project I. Elucidation of basic psychological development process and educational support 2005 Research Report, p.47-53.


Nobuko Umehara, Akira Sakamoto, Kurie Ide, Kumiko Kobayashi (2002). Effect of video game use on shyness-Analysis of longitudinal data of junior high school students-. Personality psychology research. 11, p.54-55.


Hiroki Yuchi (1996). Relationship between video game play and regularity reasoning. Annual Report on Childhood Education and Research. 18, p.57-62.



National SLA Research Department (2007). 53rd School Reading Survey Report. School Library, No.685, p.12-35.